Processual Archaeology The New Archaeology

Processual archaeology was an intellectual movement of the 1960s, known then as the new archaeology, which advocated logical positivism as a guiding research philosophy, modeled on the scientific method—something that had never been applied to archaeology before. The processualists rejected the cultural-historical notion that culture was a set of norms held by a group and communicated to other groups by diffusion and instead argued that the archaeological remains of culture were the behavioral outcome of a populations adaptation to specific environmental conditions. It was time for a New Archaeology that would leverage the scientific method to find and make clear the (theoretical) general laws of cultural growth in the way that societies responded to their environment. New Archaeology The New Archaeology stressed theory formation, model building, and hypothesis testing in the search for general laws of human behavior. Cultural history, the processualists argued, wasnt repeatable: it is fruitless to tell a story about a cultures change unless you are going to test its inferences. How do you know a culture history youve built is correct? In fact, you can be gravely mistaken but there were no scientific grounds to rebut that. The processualists explicitly wanted to go beyond the cultural-historical methods of the past (simply building a record of changes) to focus on the processes of culture (what kinds of things happened to make that culture). Theres also an implied redefinition of what culture is. Culture in processual archaeology is conceived primarily as the adaptive mechanism that enables people to cope with their environments. Processual culture was seen as a system composed of subsystems, and the explanatory framework of all of those systems was cultural ecology, which in turn provided the basis for hypotheticodeductive models that the processualists could test. New Tools To strike out in this new archaeology, the processualists had two tools: ethnoarchaeology and the rapidly burgeoning varieties of statistical techniques, part of the quantitative revolution experienced by all sciences of the day, and one impetus for todays big data. Both of these tools still operate in archaeology: both were embraced first during the 1960s. Ethnoarchaeology is the use of archaeological techniques on abandoned villages, settlements, and sites of living people. The classic processual ethnoarchaeological study was Lewis Binfords examination of the archaeological remains left by mobile Inuit hunters and gatherers (1980). Binford was explicitly looking for evidence of patterned repeatable processes, a regular variability that might be looked for and found represented on archaeological sites left by Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. With the scientific approach aspired to by processualists came a need for lots of data to examine. Processual archaeology came about during the quantitative revolution, which included an explosion of sophisticated statistical techniques fueled by growing computing powers and growing access to them. Data collected by processualists (and still today) included both material culture characteristics (like artifact sizes and shapes and locations), and data from ethnographic studies about historically known population makeups and movements. Those data were used to build and eventually test a living groups adaptations under specific environmental conditions and thereby to explain prehistoric cultural systems. Subdisciplinary Specialization Processualists were interested in the dynamic relationships (causes and effects) that operate among the components of a system or between systematic components and the environment. The process was by definition repeated and repeatable: first, the archaeologist observed phenomena in the archaeological or ethnoarchaeological record, then they used those observations to form explicit hypotheses about the connection of that data to the events or conditions in the past that might have caused those observations. Next, the archaeologist would figure out what kind of data might support or reject that hypothesis, and finally, the archaeologist would go out, collect more data, and find out if the hypothesis was a valid one. If it was valid for one site or circumstance, the hypothesis could be tested in another one. The search for general laws quickly became complicated, because there were so much data and so much variability depending on what the archaeologist studied. Rapidly, archaeologists found themselves in subdisciplinary specializations to be able to cope: spatial archaeology dealt with spatial relationships at every level from artifacts to settlement patterns; regional archaeology sought to understand trade and exchange within a region; intersite archaeology sought to identify and report on sociopolitical organization and subsistence; and intrasite archaeology intended to understand human activity patterning. Benefits and Costs of Processual Archaeology Prior to processual archaeology, archaeology was not typically seen as a science, because the conditions on one site or feature are never identical and so by definition not repeatable. What the New Archaeologists did was make the scientific method practical within its limitations. However, what processual practitioners found was that the sites and cultures and circumstances varied too much to be simply a reaction to environmental conditions. It was a formal, unitarian principle that archaeologist Alison Wylie called the paralyzing demand for certainty. There had to be other things going on, including human social behaviors that had nothing to do with environmental adaptations. The critical reaction to processualism born in the 1980s was called post-processualism, which is a different story but no less influential on archaeological science today. Sources Binford LR. 1968. Some Comments on Historical versus Processual Archaeology. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 24(3):267-275.Binford LR. 1980. Willow smoke and dogs tails: Hunter gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45(1):4-20.Earle TK, Preucel RW, Brumfiel EM, Carr C, Limp WF, Chippindale C, Gilman A, Hodder I, Johnson GA, Keegan WF et al. 1987. Processual Archaeology and the Radical Critique [and Comments and Reply]. Current Anthropology 28(4):501-538.Fewster KJ. 2006. The Potential of Analogy in Post-Processual Archaeologies: A Case Study from Basimane Ward, Serowe, Botswana. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 12(1):61-87.Kobylinski Z, Lanata JL, and Yacobaccio HD. 1987. On Processual Archaeology and the Radical Critique. Current Anthropology 28(5):680-682.Kushner G. 1970. A Consideration of Some Processual Designs for Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 35(2):125-132.Patterson TC. 1989. History and the Po st-Processual Archaeologies. Man 24(4):555-566.Wylie A. 1985. The Reaction against Analogy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 8:63-111.

Othello Essay Topic Iago Isn’t Completely to Blame for...

Topic: Iago isn’t completely to blame for this tragedy as Cassio was wrongly appointed by Othello and this caused the tragedy. Do you agree? In William Shakespeare’s seventeenth century play Othello readers can see that Iago isn’t the only one responsible for the tragedies within this text as he didn’t actually kill the Othello or Desdemona and all people have free will and must choose to accept manipulation. Although Iago played a major role in bringing about the disaster evident in this script, other characters played a supporting although vital role. The Elizabethan play is set during a time of war and racial conflict. This social climate breeds insecurity in the minds of its people. Of course Iago plays a major role in the tragedy†¦show more content†¦Her guilt propels her to confess her and thus her role cannot be ignored despite the bravery she shows defying Iago’s demand that she ‘get ..home and ‘charm [her] tongue’. Her confession ‘moor, she was chaste’ and that she loved the ‘cruel moor’ is all too late. Emilia said to Desdemona before her lady’s death ‘yes, the world’s a huge thing’ and people in it are bad and women do deceive. She showed her awareness and such an in tune woman should have suspected her husband’s ‘purpose’ with the handkerchief and known it would not be noble and never have given the sacred ‘token’ to him. Roderigo and Cassio clearly also play a vital role in this text. Roderigo supplies the money to fund Iago’s plans and does ‘put money in thy purse’ and help ‘plume up [Iago’s] will’ by doing so. Instead of stopping Iago, Roderigo accepts Iago encouraging Roderigo’s lustful mind. Roderigo could have talked reason into Iago but instead allowed iago to talk lack of reason and deception into his mind. Roderigo payed for his too great a trust in Iago with his life. Iago pushes Roderigo to ‘be a man in his efforts to convince Rodrigo to go to war and says Roderigo shall enjoy her if he doesn’t drown in his melancholy state. Even though it is quite clear to

Campbell Soup Employee Engagement free essay sample

Douglas Conant, the CEO of Campbell Soup Co. discussed the importance of employee engagement and how Campbell’s strategy to pay attention to this metric paid off for their company. Conant took over in 2001 when Campbells was close to a takeover and its soup sales had drastically declined amid fierce competition. Furthermore, some of its best employees had left the company rather than wait out the hard times. Conant recognized that of all the elements related to corporate culture, employee engagement was the most highly correlated to shareholder returns. Therefore, to turn things around, Conant implemented the Campbell Promise of â€Å"Campbell Valuing People, People Valuing Campbell† with the strategy that: To win in the market place, we believe you must first win in the workplace. I’m obsessed with keeping employee engagement front and center and keeping up energy around it. † In 2002 Conant hired the help of Gallup, a polling and research firm, to better understand his company’s engagement levels. We will write a custom essay sample on Campbell Soup Employee Engagement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Gallup found that 62% of Campbell’s managers were not actively engaged in their jobs and 12% were actively disengaged. Those numbers were some of the worst for any Fortune 500 firm ever polled. By Gallup standards the ideal level of employee engagement is to have a ratio of 12 actively engaged employees for every disengaged employee. Campbell’s ratio was only 2:1; that is, only 2 actively engaged employees for every disengaged employee. Strategies to Motivate and Engage Employees †¢Bring down barriers, literally – Conant had barbed wire fencing removed from Campbell’s Camden, NJ facility to create pleasant work environment †¢Promoting from within – replaced 300 of the company’s 350 leaders half of whom were promoted from within the company. This â€Å"changed the culture and sent a message that few could ignore. † †¢Annual surveys of all 580 work groups simultaneously – managers review the results with their direct reports and everyone is updated on their progress related to specific goals. Leaders are measured on their ability to inspire trust in those around them. †¢Recognition Events – celebrate at a high level when people do things well. †¢CEO’s acknowledgement – Conant sends out about 20 thank-you notes a day to staffers, on all levels. Open communication every six weeks CEO has lunch with a group of a dozen or so employees to get their perspective on the business, to address problems and to get feedback.

Pacific Model of Health Essay Example

Pacific Model of Health Paper Pacific Islanders health and wellbeing has a holistic approach involving spirituality and environment. As a result of these and other differences, pacific models have been developed. The Pacific people in New Zealand are represented by seven different countries which are Samoa, Cook Island, Tonga, Niue, Tokelau, Fiji and Tuvalu. This essay will describe one of the pacific health models, the Fonofale model, and will also discuss how this model can enhance nursing practice. Moreover, it will attempt to demonstrate the application of the Fonofale model to holistically assess the cultural and clinical needs of a Pacific client. Finally this essay will address the clients health concerns and resilient factors and one concern will be discussed in more detail, reflecting on how the clients cultural beliefs and practices impact on their current health status (Ministry of Health, 2009). The Fonofale model of health is a Samoan model that was created by a psychiatric nurse called Fuimaono Karl Pulotu Endemann. The model is a holistic concept and was developed to explain key features that Paci? c peoples consider important for maintaining good health which included family, culture and spirituality. The model arose after the Dawn raids of the 1970’s in where the Pacific community was a target and over stayers were sent back to the Islands (Manukau Institute of Technology, 2013). The concept of the Samoan fale or meeting house was a way to incorporate and portray a Pacific way of what was important to the cultural groups. In the Fonofale model, cultural values and beliefs are seen as a shelter (the roof) – this may include traditional methods of healing and western treatments. Family forms the foundation or the floor of the fale. This may be the nuclear and/or the extended family and is significant to ones health. We will write a custom essay sample on Pacific Model of Health specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Pacific Model of Health specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Pacific Model of Health specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Connecting culture and family are the four pou or posts. ‘Spirituality’ includes christianity, religion or traditional spirituality. The ‘Physical’ pou relates to the physical and biological well being of the person. ‘Mental’ relates to the health of the mind which involves thinking, emotions and expressed behaviours. The fourth pou ‘Other’ refers to factors that can directly or indirectly affect health, such as gender, age, social class, employment, education and sexual orientation. Surrounding the outside of the fale is environment, time and context. Environment addresses the relationships and uniqueness of Pacific people to their physical environment. Time relates to the actual or specific time in history that impacts on Pacific people and context relates to the meaning of health for that particular person (Manukau Institute of Technology, 2013). Pacific models like the Fonofale model is important to consider when providing nursing care to Pacific people to establish empathy and rapport between the client and nurse. It also helps to acknowledge cultural differences and to demonstrate respect and appreciation. By acknowledging the different components of the Fonofale model this will provide nurses the tools that are culturally appropriate and effective for Pacific peoples in order to improve and maintain their holistic health and well being (Ministry of Health, 2008). The Popao is a canoe that Pacific elders use for fishing and travelling – the Popao model is portrayed by the concept of relationship, connectedness and working together as a unity in which is fundamental to the health and well being of the Pacific people. Auckland has the largest Pacific population in the world. There is diversity within the Pacific Population living in Aotearoa. Each Paci? c nation has its own set of cultural beliefs, customs, languages, values and traditions. However, there are also differences within each Pacific community Therefore it is of great significance to understand the Pacific models as it can enhance nursing care (Ellis, 2007). As clinicians, an awareness of the context of where Pacific People have come from gives nurses advantage of how to approach nursing care for clients. By understanding the complexities of the Pacific population in this country, helps gives nurses a wider context in which Pacific worldview is applied and its influences. With these models, nurses practice will be enhanced by practicing in a culturally safe manner and cultural competency. Nurses should also carry out important values such as alofa (love), faaloalo (respect – foundation for good relationships), usitai (obedience), and faamaualalo (humility – not putting yourself above others) to name a few. The Va is a term defining space between. All relationships especially the one between the client and nurse are sacred. One can violate that Va (relationship) by practicing in a manner that is not client focussed. As nurses it is our duty to be culturally aware and sensitive in order to enhance nursing practice (Manukau Institute of Technology, 2013). The Fonofale model was used as an assessment tool to assess the chosen client nam ed Ana (pseudonym). With the permission of the preceptor accessing Anas notes was critical to gain insight to her scenario. Bridging the ‘Va’ and creating a meaningful relationship with Ana was important. This was carried out by visiting Ana three times prior to asking for consent to interview her, greeting Ana in her language (Tongan) and speaking some Tongan phrases. Active listening was also used and being non-judgemental. Therapeutic relationship was built with Ana by developing a sense of trust and rapport from her. Rapport is often increased by the use of humour, informality and simple language. In the beginning of the interview a prayer was said to sanctify and set apart the conversation that was about to be made. Also prior to assessing Ana, I also shared some information about myself and some significant events in my life which also contributed to bridging the ‘Va’ between Ana and me (Culbertson, 2007). Ana is a 26 year old Tongan lady who was born in New Zealand and lives with her parents. Her parents migrated from Tonga in the 1980s to New Zealand for economic reasons and hoping to raise their children with better education. Ana has no other siblings but her extended family are very much involved in her life. Ana attended church but was not involved in church activities. She also had successfully completed one year in business studies and had started her second year of study. According to Anas clinical notes she was physically in good health, having no medical problems of any type. The Tongan culture including beliefs, values and traditions play an important part of Anas health and wellbeing. Ofa (Love), tokai (respect), talangofua (obedience) and fakatokilalo (humility) which is making ones self lower than others, are some of the values that are significant in the Tongan culture ( Toafa Moata’ane, 2001). Anas first presentation of mental illness was in March 2011. Anas family noted deterioration in her mental state over the past ten days. They stated that Ana paced herself around the house, became paranoid that someone was out to get her, talked to herself, was agitated and even isolated herself. She also attempted to leave the house in which it took six family members to restraint her. Ana claimed to see devils and felt that God was working through her and had a mission to save the world. She also stated that her brothers were Prince William and Prince Harry. Anas cousin contacted the mental health line and she was then referred to a community mental health service. Ana had a psychotic episode which resolved quickly with medication. She was diagnosed with Schizo affective disorder with elevated mood and the initial plan was to continue taking medication with a iew to slowly decrease it and to continue her normal routine (Herrmann, 2005). Medications that have been prescribed for Ana was olanzapine 10mg daily which is an antipsychotic drug that is used to relieve psychotic symptoms. Some of olanzapines side effects include weight gain and sedation causing one to feel calm and often sleepy. Epilim 500mg (daily) was also prescribed for her, which is a mood stabilizer. Ana appeared to have an elevated mood so Epilim helped her to feel a more relaxed feeling, have less racing thoughts, and a big decrease in impulsiveness. Some of Epilims side effects include increase in appetite, temporary hair loss and diarrhoea (Elder, Evans Nizette, 2005). At the time of assessment Ana was pleasant, polite and cooperative in interactions. She was reasonably groomed and dressed appropriately. Her mood appeared to be euthymic with a pleasant and reactive affect. Ana denied any hallucinations, paranoia and denied hearing any voices. She appeared to be alert and orientated to time, place and person. Her memory appeared intact, but however had little insight to her illness. Her speech was relevant to the topic of discussion. Ana was not attending course anymore, was currently unemployed and on the sickness benefit (Manukau Institute of Technology, 2013). Concerns that are leading to Anas slow recovery in her mental illness include non-compliance. Ana has had three relapses in the past three years and had again deteriorated in her mental state all because she was reluctant to take her medication because it caused her to increase in weight. This relapse caused Ana to shoplift at the shops nearby, which may very well be part of her disorganized thought process. A major concern with increase in weight is that Ana is more prone to other health diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and high cholesterol. Therefore it is crucial to have ongoing assessment to monitor and prevent any major health problems. The doctor then decided to stop the olanzapine in July 2012 and prescribed risperidone 3mg (daily) which is another antipsychotic for a week then have intramuscular injections of risperdal consta 37. 5mg (fortnightly). One of Anas goals was to try and lose 20kg by the end of the year. Losing the weight will help to boost her self esteem and self image (Elder et al. 2005). Stigma is another concern and is defined by a mark of shame, guilt and inferiority that a person may carry from having mental illness and negative views from others, otherwise known as prejudice. Most Tongans have negative attitudes towards people with mental illness such as thinking they are fakasesele (crazy), broke a taboo (something sacred) or are possessed by the devil. Tongan families often attempt to conceal members who may be afflicted. Ana is the only child in the family and being a female her worth is of great value. In the Tongan culture, women are ranked higher than males. Anas parents stated that she is â€Å"the pearl of the family†. For Tongans including her parents, they prefer Tongan Healers and believe that taking medications and going to the hospital is the last resort. The lack of insight and support from Ana’s family contributed to her relapses (Peterson, Barnes Duncan, 2008). Ana and her parents have certain disagreements in regards to health because Ana was born and raised in New Zealand (an environment where almost everything is westernized), compared to her parents who were from the Tonga. The family denied that Ana had mental illness they sought help from Traditional Healers. Her parents believed that it is avanga or spirit possessed. So the Traditional Healers put green leaves in her eyes and throat. This treatment was carried out four times until Ana refused it completely; she said that â€Å"it burnt† and preferred the medications. Pacific cultures do not have words that translate easily into mental illness. It is considered to be conjoined from the overall wellbeing of the body, soul and spirit. The traditional Paci? belief related to mental health is that disturbed behaviour is a manifestation of an external spiritual force, especially ancestral spirits who have taken possession of the person because the person or the person’s family have broken a certain custom or offended the spirits in some way (Toafa Moata’ane, 2001). The more relapses Ana has, the more difficult it is to help her in her recovery process. The plan is for the nurse to carry out psycho education continuously for Ana and her family about her illness and educate them on the medication that she is taking, its side effects and why she needs it. The Tongan peer support service (PSS) will also be involved. This is a person who has experienced mental illness and is able to help clients like Ana to break the stigma and walk alongside Ana’s journey with mental illness. Psycho education and involving Ana’s family is extremely crucial to Ana’s recovery process. The expected goal is for Ana and her family to have a good understanding of her illness that is Schizo affective disorder and to be accepting and supportive in Anas recovery process (Ross, 2009).